Populism and Fascism: Finally, a Successful Typology

Historian Marc Lazar offers a rigorous analysis of the movements that are shaking up contemporary democracies. His latest essay, in particular, helps us understand what distinguishes them from the authoritarian regimes of the 20th^th century.

There has been countless research on this phenomenon known as «populism.» Yet few studies achieve the level of nuance required to accurately identify its characteristics, despite the term’s long history. In reality, this form of political thought has proven to be unprecedented in many respects since its «modern» emergence in the 1970s and 1980s, as well as its dramatic emergence in the parliamentary life of several countries—to the point of becoming the quasi-«official» label for the more or less extremist movements in vogue, especially since the beginning of the 21st^th century. And to bring them, at times, into the inner circles of power.

Studies on this subject often run up against the originality of these movements, struggling to counter the standard rhetoric of political parties—especially those on the left—which, in a refusal to acknowledge nuance, associate them with a more or less successful resurgence of fascism. That is where the problem lies. Once populism has been cast in its black or brown uniform, how can we understand its driving forces and specific characteristics? The «new» far left’s appropriation of the term starting in the 2010s has only obscured our understanding of populism, while also signaling that reducing it to proto- or post-fascism as a matter of course could no longer hold water.

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Some authors have attempted to break free from this intellectually unproductive identification. Among them is Thibault Muzergues, who in 2025 proposed the interesting concept of «post-populism» to explain how important it is to avoid slapping just any cliché or other fascist-like fantasy onto this form of populism, which has become so trivialized through being thrown into every possible context. In his essay Post-populism: The New Wave That Will Shake Up the West, published by Editions de l’Observatoire, the political scientist drew on Italy—that constantly turbulent political laboratory—to examine populism in its unique form, while cautioning against overly hasty historical comparisons.

But the attempt that we consider the most successful in going beyond the most common theories on the subject seems to us to be that of Marc Lazar, For the Sake of the People: A History of Populism in 19th-Century France^th-XXI^th century, published in 2025 by Gallimard. Although focused on France, this book—drawn from a wealth of scholarly knowledge—offers a compelling framework for understanding this political movement, both in terms of its unique dynamics and its similarities to, but also and above all its differences from, fascism. The author thus demonstrates the extent to which populism is indeed present on both extremes of the political spectrum, with left-wing populism trading the exploitation of the people and foreigners for the national identity politics so dear to its right-wing counterpart.

Marc Lazar’s definition of right-wing populism is a skillful synthesis of existing scholarship. To national withdrawal, this populism adds the idealized unity of a mythologized people—the embodiment of all virtues—in contrast to the inevitably corrupt elites. By playing on emotions and directing its hatred toward demagogically selected scapegoats, populism is distinguished by its ability to revel in disruption, flaunting its determination to change the system. The transformation thus posited must, however, be rooted in the concrete—that of the people embodying the «low»—as opposed to the abstract, the preserve of the «high,» that of an establishment lost in the blissful admiration of a decadent modernity. Nevertheless, although fascinated by the leader’s authority, populism—forged in protest—claims to uphold a democracy whose foundations it has supposedly renewed.

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And this is where, as Marc Lazar subtly explains, populism diverges from any form of fascism or communism, which have never sought to save the principles of «bourgeois» democracy from their alleged destruction. On the contrary! While fascism contains elements that could be described as populist, it emphasizes other dimensions that place it on a different trajectory. Such as the use of violence, which the essayist argues is inherent to fascist movements. So, too, is the role of the state, toward which everything ultimately converges, through the Führer Principle, although his authority is fragmented, according to Johann Chapoutot’s thesis in Free to Obey (Gallimard, 2020): The French example highlights the internal tensions within the National Rally regarding the role of the state in the economy. Even the nationalism espoused by the two factions is not identical: the aggressive, religiously motivated nationalism of the fascists and Nazis stands in contrast to the defensive nationalism of the populists.

These significant distinctions make Marc Lazar’s book a valuable tool for calmly analyzing the populist movements around us—movements that are, in fact, already undermining the West and, as Thibault Muzergues suggests, will continue to «shake up the West.» This makes it possible to address these phenomena with full knowledge of the facts and to combat them appropriately, while avoiding any misunderstandings.

Olivier Meuwly is a historian, specializing in 19^th century. He is the author of numerous essays on direct democracy, liberalism and Swiss political parties.

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Marc Lazar
For the Sake of the People: A History of Populism in 19th-Century France^th-XXI^th century
Gallimard
October 2025
320 pages

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